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Structural violence
Structural violence is a term commonly ascribed to Johan Galtung, which he introduced in the article "Violence, Peace, and Peace Research" (1969).〔Galtung, Johan. "Violence, Peace, and Peace Research" ''Journal of Peace Research'', Vol. 6, No. 3 (1969), pp. 167-191〕 It refers to a form of violence wherein some social structure or social institution may harm people by preventing them from meeting their basic needs. Institutionalized adultism, ageism, classism, elitism, ethnocentrism, nationalism, racism, and sexism are some examples of structural violence as proposed by Galtung. According to Galtung, rather than conveying a physical image, structural violence is an "avoidable impairment of fundamental human needs".〔Johan Galtung, "Kulturelle Gewalt" (1993) Vol. 43 ''Der Burger im Staat'' p. 106 in Ho, Kathleen "Structural Violence as a Human Rights Violation" (2007). ''Essex Human Rights Review'' Vol. 4 No. 2 September 2007〕 As it is avoidable, structural violence is a high cause of premature death and unnecessary disability. Because structural violence affects people differently in various social structures, it is very closely linked to social injustice.〔 Structural violence and direct violence are said to be highly interdependent, including family violence, gender violence, hate crimes, racial violence, police violence, state violence, terrorism, and war.
In his book ''Violence: Reflections on a National Epidemic'', James Gilligan defines structural violence as "the increased rates of death and disability suffered by those who occupy the bottom rungs of society, as contrasted with the relatively lower death rates experienced by those who are above them." Gilligan largely describes these "excess deaths" as "non-natural" and attributes them to the stress, shame, discrimination, and denigration that results from lower status. He draws on Sennett and Cobb, who examine the "contest for dignity" in a context of dramatic inequality.
==Cultural violence==
"Cultural violence" refers to aspects of a culture that can be used to justify or legitimize direct or structural violence, and may be exemplified by religion and ideology, language and art, empirical science and formal science.〔Galtung, Johan. "Cultural Violence," ''Journal of Peace Research'', Vol. 27, No. 3 (Aug., 1990), pp. 291-305〕
Cultural violence makes direct and structural violence look or feel "right", or at least not wrong, according to Galtung.〔Galtung 1990, p. 291〕 The study of cultural violence highlights the ways the act of direct violence and the fact of structural violence are legitimized and thus made acceptable in society. One mechanism of cultural violence is to change the "moral color" of an act from "red/wrong" to "green/right", or at least to "yellow/acceptable".〔Galtung 1990, p. 292〕
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